By Anuradha Dutta
अतुलं तत्र तत्तेजः सर्वदेवशरीरजम् ।
एकस्थं तदभून्नारी व्याप्तलोकत्रयं त्विषा॥
(The incomparable radiance that was born from all gods and pervaded the 3 worlds,came to one place and took the form of a woman.)
---- Source: Devīmahātmyam 2.13, Markandeya Purana
Life existed in holy land of India from the time that history when history was in making. It is a land where it is believed that the nature or the prakriti is the female force behind the marvel called life. Man, and women both walked side by side through ages, faced the changes of civilizations. The status of women as depicted in the works of the great sages through time indicates that was never stagnant and it has been ever fluctuating. It is believed that from the ages of the Vedas, the Indian society has given the women a position that was not unequal to that of their male counterparts. There are many instances that lets us know that the women enjoyed freedom and equality in the society. The Rig-Vedic society, for example was a free society. Although the male child was preferred in a family, females were free as their male counterparts. Education was equally open for both boys and girls. Girls studied the Veda and fine arts. They enjoyed freedom in selecting their mates. Their Status in the family was of Ardhanginis. She was the supreme of the household and enjoyed freedom. Women helped their husbands in agricultural pursuits also. Husband used to consult his wife on financial matters. Unmarried daughters had share in their fathers’ property. Daughter had full legal rights in the property of her father in the absence of any son. Mother’s property, after her death, was equally divided among sons and unmarried daughters. There were women scholars and sages or brahmavadinis who composed hymns of Rig Veda. Vak Ambhrini, Lopamudra, Vishwawara, Sikta, Ghosha, and Maitreyi were the pioneers among them. The 39th and the 40th hymn of the Rig Veda, Mandala 10, is believed to be composed by Lopamudra.
If we study the status of women as described in the epics, we can indulge ourselves with the knowledge that most of the female characters in Ramayana and the Mahabharata were well educated in all spheres of life. In Ramayana the characters of Mata Sita Tara, Mandodari, Urmila illustrates the qualities of Hindu women and the societal expectation from them. The Mahabharata on the other hand give accounts of women who were educated and politically empowered. Women characters like Satyavati, Draupadi, and Kunti changed and framed the course of mythological history with their strategic interference. As described by the great epic these women made Aryavart as it was. Women even offered their views and counselling to man for the betterment of the State and Dharma. While women enjoyed this high and honoured status in the epic ages their status was slightly deteriorated in the ages of puranas and the smritis. Although Manusmriti states -
यत्र नार्यस्तु पूज्यन्ते रमन्ते तत्र देवताः।
यत्रैतास्तु न पूज्यन्ते सर्वास्तत्राफलाः क्रियाः।। मनुस्मृति३/५६।।
-Where women are worshiped, there lives the Gods. Wherever they are not worshiped, all actions result in failure.
शोचन्ति जामयो यत्र विनश्यत्या शुतत्कुलम्।
न शोचन्ति तु यत्रैता वर्धते तद्धि सर्वदा।। मनुस्मृति३/५७।।
-The family in which women (such as mother, wife, sister, daughter et al.) are full of sorrow that family meets its destruction very soon, while the family in which they do not grieve is always prosperous.
However, Manusmriti includes certain number of verses on women and their rights that contradicts with the above verses. It also shows a declined position of women in the societal strata. Several examples are –
पिता रक्षति कौमारे भर्ता रक्षति यौवने।
रक्षन्ति स्थविरे पुत्रा न स्त्री स्वातन्त्र्यमर्हति॥३॥
Since women are not capable of living independently, she is to be kept under the custody of her father as child, under her husband as a woman and under her son as widow.
- Manusmriti 9/3
नास्ति स्त्रीणां क्रिया मन्त्रैरिति धर्मे व्यवस्थितिः।
निरिन्द्रिया ह्यमन्त्राश्च स्त्रीभ्यो अनृतमिति स्थितिः॥१८॥
-While performing namkarm and jatkarm, Vedic mantras are not to be recited by women, because women are lacking in strength and knowledge of Vedic texts. Women are impure and represent falsehood. - Manusmriti 9/18
As stated in Manusmriti, women do not have any economic right. He says, “A wife, a son and a Slave, these three are declared to have no property, the wealth which they earn is for him to whom they belong”. Thus, from the verses of Manusmriti or the 'Manava Dharmashastra', we come to know that women lost their high and revered status that they enjoyed in the vedic ages in the age of Puranas and Smritis. However, there are some mentions of contradictions found that raises further questions in this regard. Although Manusmriti seems quite harsh while stating the position of women in the society, it is worthy to be mentioned that various manuscripts of Manusmriti discovered in India are inconsistent with each other, and within themselves, raising concerns of its authenticity, insertions and interpolations made into the text in later times.
We can conclude that there are two schools of thought and philosophy in ancient India, one held woman with utmost respect and saw them enjoying a high status in the society while enriching and contributing towards its prosperity. The other school however, not only objectified women; it looked down upon them with positive hatred.
The status of women in the society saw some changes in the Buddhist era. Women were able to achieve distinctive place in the field of religion. They held their own Sangha called Bhikshuni Sangha. There were many well-known female arahants. Although early Buddhist texts such as the Cullavagga section of the Vinaya Pitaka of the Pali Canon contain statements from Gautama Buddha, speaking to the fact that a woman can attain enlightenment, it is also clearly stated in the Bahudhātuka-sutta that there could never be a female Buddha. The Buddha provided the names of women, both mendicant and lay, who were exemplars of attainment and character. These are listed in the Pañcama Vagga and Chaṭṭha Vagga of the Aṅguttara Nikāya.
According to ancient Hindu texts and tradition, until about 500 B.C. women in India enjoyed considerable freedom. But in the next thousand years that followed, women’s status in society deteriorated. Freedom that was abundant in the Vedic Ages like educational and religious parity was denied to them. The Muslims invaded India for first time in the eighth century. During this period, the Hindu society was evolving once again, under the leadership of Sankaracharya. He emphasised on the supremacy of Vedas. The Vedas as we know, had given a status of equality to women.
India was invaded for the second time by the Muslims in the eleventh century when Mohammad Ghazni conquered India. From this period till the middle of the eighteenth century, when the British rule was established in the country the breakdown of social institutions, the vast migration of people and the economic depression in the country contributed to a general decline of social life, particularly among women. The ‘Purdah’ system was followed which resulted in seclusion of women. Education of women in whatever form came to be stopped. Child marriage was started. During this period the inhuman practice of sati pratha was in vogue. Purdah pratha, sati pratha, child marriage, girl killing, polygamy etc. were the main social evils of this period.
However, during the fifteenth century, the Bhakti movement was organised by Ramanujacharya. During this period introduced new trends in the social and religious life of Indian women. The saints like Chaitanya, Nanak, Kabir, Meera, Ramdas and Tulsi stood for the right of women to religious worship. Hence, this movement, at least, provided religious freedom to women.
The women of Indian subcontinent went through an era of oppression while the entire nation slowly drifted under the British rule. The rights of the women were never looked to be a matter of concern by the East India Company and later by the British Government. But even in that dark time of oppression There were people like Raja Ram Mohan Roy who opposed the sati pratha, advocated for widow remarriage and right for women to hold property. There were women like the Queen of Jhansi who opposed the British rule and fought with such bravery that even Sir Hugh Rose, who led the British forces against her wrote - she was a "man among mutineers". Word of praise and honour by the enemy themselves. Later freedom fighters like Sarojini Naidu, Madam Bhikaji Cama, Kanaklata Barua, Usha Mehata etc fought alongside the great freedom fighters to earn our country independence.
In the post-independence era till the present day the status of Indian women in the society has been uplifted by many standards. The daughters of this holy soil are now excelling in every sphere of life. Be it science and technology, business, or education; women are seen everywhere marking their presence. Even in the defence sector women are making their presence felt. Kalpana Chawla, a woman of Indian origin had made her presence known even in space. Indra Nooyi, Former Chairman and CEO of Pepsi Co, Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw, Chairman and Managing Director of Biocon, Swati Piramal, Vice Chairperson, Piramal Enterprises are several well-known names of women who with their intellect and hard work shined in their respective domains. With a progressive governance in India right now, with schemes like Mahila E- haat, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, One Stop Centre Scheme, Working Women Hostels, Nari Shakti Puraskars, ban in the prenatal sex determination etc, strictness of government while putting effort towards the eradication of child marriage, killing of girl child, trafficking, and prostitution etc. the society is moving towards a better future. A future where women of India will enjoy their rightful position in the society.
